[1] D. Seckler, U. A. Amarasinghe, D. J. Molden, R. De Silva, and R. Barker, World Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues, IWMI Research Report 19. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (1998), doi: 10.22004/AG.ECON.61108.

[2] S. Damkjaer and R. Taylor, “The measurement of water scarcity: Defining a meaningful indicator,” Ambio, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 513–531 (2017), doi: 10.1007/s13280-017-0912-z.

[3] N. Mancosu, R. L. Snyder, G. Kyriakakis, and D. Spano, “Water scarcity and future challenges for food production,” Water, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 975–992 (2015), doi: 10.3390/w7030975.

[4] K. Zisopoulou and D. Panagoulia, “An in-depth analysis of physical blue and green water scarcity in agriculture in terms of causes and events and perceived amenability to economic interpretation,” Water, vol. 13, no. 12, Art. no. 1693 (2021), doi: 10.3390/w13121693.

[5] A. K. Gosain, S. Rao, and D. Basuray, “Climate change impact assessment on hydrology of Indian river basins,” Curr. Sci., vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 346–353 (2006).

[6] Y. Wang, K. Sun, L. Li, Y. Lei, S. Wu, F. Wang, and J. Luo, “The optimal allocation and the evaluation of water resources carrying capacity in Shendong mining area,” Resources Policy, vol. 77, Art. no. 102738 (2022), doi: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102738.

[7] A. Biswas, “Water scarcity: A global hindrance to sustainable development and agricultural production—A critical review of the impacts and adaptation strategies,” Cambridge Prisms: Water, vol. 3, Art. no. e4 (2025), doi: 10.1017/wat.2024.16.

[8] World Bank, Annual Report 2023. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank (2023).

[9] A. Mahato, S. Upadhyay, and D. Sharma, “Global water scarcity due to climate change and its conservation strategies with special reference to India: A review,” Plant Archives, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 64–69 (2022), doi: 10.51470/plantarchives.2022.v22.no1.009.

[10] NITI Aayog, Composite Water Management Index. New Delhi, India: NITI Aayog (2019).

[11] F. R. Rijsberman, “Water scarcity: Fact or fiction?,” Agric. Water Manage., vol. 80, nos. 1–3, pp. 5–22 (2006), doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.001.

[12] R. Kumar, R. D. Singh, and K. D. Sharma, “Water resources of India,” Curr. Sci., vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 794–811 (2005).

[13] L. Mehta, The Politics and Poetics of Water: The Naturalisation of Scarcity in Western India. New Delhi, India: Orient Longman (2005).

[14] M. Dinesh Kumar, “Market instruments for demand management in the face of scarcity and overuse of water in Gujarat, Western India,” Water Policy, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 387–403 (2001), doi: 10.1016/S1366-7017(01)00081-2.

[15] S. L. Postel, “Entering an era of water scarcity: The challenges ahead,” Ecol. Appl., vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 941–948 (2000), doi: 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0941:EAEOWS]2.0.CO;2.

[16] M. M. Mekonnen and A. Y. Hoekstra, “Four billion people facing severe water scarcity,” Sci. Adv., vol. 2, no. 2, Art. no. e1500323 (2016), doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1500323.

[17] World Bank, Annual Report 2024. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank (2024).

[18] M. Ahmad, J. Shaikh, and F. Birajdar, “Anticipation of water scarcity impacted areas and duration: A case study of Osmanabad District, Maharashtra, India,” 2015. [Online]. Available: www.ijltemas.in

[19] M. Porkka, D. Gerten, S. Schaphoff, S. Siebert, and M. Kummu, “Causes and trends of water scarcity in food production,” Environ. Res. Lett., vol. 11, no. 1, Art. no. 015001 (2016), doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/015001.

[20] A. Campisano, D. Butler, S. Ward, M. J. Burns, E. Friedler, K. DeBusk, L. N. Fisher-Jeffes, E. Ghisi, A. Rahman, H. Furumai, and M. Han, “Urban rainwater harvesting systems: Research, implementation and future perspectives,” Water Res., vol. 115, pp. 195–209 (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.02.056.

[21] L. Purvis and A. Dinar, “Are intra- and inter-basin water transfers a sustainable policy intervention for addressing water scarcity?,” Water Secur., vol. 9, Art. no. 100058 (2020), doi: 10.1016/j.wasec.2019.100058.

[22] M. T. H. van Vliet, “Global water scarcity including surface water quality and expansions of clean water technologies,” Environ. Res. Lett., vol. 16, no. 2, Art. no. 024020 (2021), doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/abbfc3.

[23] S. Redhu and P. Jain, “Unveiling the nexus between water scarcity and socioeconomic development in the water-scarce countries,” Environ. Dev. Sustain., vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 19557–19577 (2024), doi: 10.1007/s10668-023-03425-4.

[24] W. Gu and Y. Qin, “Targeted opportunities to mitigate water scarcity, inequality, and inequity embedded in international food trade for vulnerable countries,” Water Res., vol. 267, Art. no. 122568 (2024), doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.122568.

[25] A. T. Meetei, “Water scarcity and public health concerns in rural India: A case study of Nongpok Sekmai and surrounding villages,” Discover Water, vol. 4, Art. no. 80 (2024), doi: 10.1007/s43832-024-00145-2.

[26] V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, and P. R. Shukla, Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press (2018).

[27] M. T. Klare, “Climate change, water scarcity, and the potential for interstate conflict in South Asia,” J. Strategic Secur., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 109–122 (2020).

[28] M. Jain, C. B. Barrett, D. Solomon, and K. Ghezzi-Kopel, “Surveying the evidence on sustainable intensification strategies for smallholder agricultural systems,” Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 347–369 (2023).

[29] D. K. Singh and A. K. Singh, “Groundwater situation in India: Problems and perspective,” Int. J. Water Resour. Dev., vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 563–580 (2002).

[30] S. Dutta Gupta, A. Mukherjee, J. Bhattacharya, and A. Bhattacharya, “An overview of agricultural pollutants and organic contaminants in groundwater of India,” in Groundwater of South Asia. Singapore: Springer pp. 247–255 (2018).

[31] V. Dhingra, G. Dhingra, and M. Dhingra, “Water economics as applied to agriculture: An overview,” Farming & Management, vol. 4, pp. 92–96 (2019).

[32] C. He, Z. Liu, and J. Wu, “Future global urban water scarcity and potential solutions,” Nat. Commun., vol. 12, Art. no. 4667 (2021), doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-25026-3.

[33] A. du Plessis, “Water resources from a global perspective,” in South Africa’s Water Predicament: Freshwater’s Unceasing Decline. Cham, Switzerland: Springer pp. 1–25 (2023).

[34] N. B. Jadeja, T. Banerji, A. Kapley, and R. Kumar, “Water pollution in India—Current scenario,” Water Secur., vol. 16, Art. no. 100119 (2022).

[35] N. Joseph, D. Ryu, H. M. Malano, B. George, and K. P. Sudheer, “Estimation of industrial water demand in India using census-based statistical data,” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., vol. 149, pp. 31–44 (2019).

[36] M. Dutta and N. Shome, “Increasing water stress in urban India: Impact of AI, LLMs and high-powered infrastructures,” (2025).

[37] D. V. Yadav, D. Parmar, R. Ganguly, and S. Shukla, “Efficiency evaluation of sewage treatment plants in Delhi, India, using tolerance-based data envelope analysis,” Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 194, no. 12, Art. no. 867 (2022), doi: 10.1007/s10661-022-10528-4.

[38] V. G. Varma, S. Jha, L. H. K. Raju, R. L. Kishore, and V. Ranjith, “A review on decentralized wastewater treatment systems in India,” Chemosphere, vol. 300, Art. no. 134462 (2022), doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134462.

[39] D. Zaman, M. K. Tiwari, A. K. Gupta, and D. Sen, “A review of leakage detection strategies for pressurised pipeline in steady-state,” Eng. Fail. Anal., vol. 109, Art. no. 104264 (2020), doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.104264.

[40] U. S. Kumar, S. Sharma, and S. V. Navada, “Recent studies on surface water-groundwater relationships at hydro-projects in India using environmental isotopes,” Hydrol. Process., vol. 22, no. 23, pp. 4543–4553 (2008).

[41] R. M. Vogel, U. Lall, X. Cai, B. Rajagopalan, P. K. Weiskel, R. P. Hooper, and N. C. Matalas, “Hydrology: The interdisciplinary science of water,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 4409–4430 (2015), doi: 10.1002/2015WR017049.

[42] M. Caparas, Z. Zobel, A. D. Castanho, and C. R. Schwalm, “Increasing risks of crop failure and water scarcity in global breadbaskets by 2030,” Environ. Res. Lett., vol. 16, no. 10, Art. no. 104013 (2021).

[43] R. Ohlan, “Pattern of regional disparities in socio-economic development in India: District level analysis,” Soc. Indic. Res., vol. 114, pp. 841–873 (2013).

[44] V. Nechifor and M. Winning, “Global economic and food security impacts of demand-driven water scarcity—Alternative water management options for a thirsty world,” Water, vol. 10, no. 10, Art. no. 1442 (2018), doi: 10.3390/w10101442.

[45] H. Zhao, S. Qu, S. Guo, H. Zhao, S. Liang, and M. Xu, “Virtual water scarcity risk to global trade under climate change,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 230, pp. 1013–1026 (2019), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.114.

[46] M. Louhaichi, “Livestock migration in the arid region of Rajasthan (India)—Strategy to cope with fodder and water scarcity,” J. Arid Land Stud., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 61–64 (2014).

[47] L. Fernandes, “Inter-state water disputes in South India,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press (2018).

[48] C. Tortajada, U. Saklani, and A. K. Biswas, “Water scarcity and regional security in India,” in Water, Security and U.S. Foreign Policy. London, U.K.: Routledge pp. 237–252 (2017).

[49] S. Qu, “Virtual water scarcity risk to the global trade system,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 673–683 (2018).

[50] S. Bogra and B. R. Bakshi, “Direct and indirect vulnerability of economic sectors to water scarcity: A hotspot analysis of the Indian economy,” J. Ind. Ecol., vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 1323–1337 (2020), doi: 10.1111/jiec.13022.

[51] D. Gondhalekar, “Drops and hot stones: Towards integrated urban planning in terms of water scarcity and health issues in Leh Town, Ladakh, India,” in Ecological Health: Society, Ecology and Health. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing pp. 173–193 (2014).

[52] P. Chowdhary, R. N. Bharagava, S. Mishra, and N. Khan, “Role of industries in water scarcity and its adverse effects on environment and human health,” in Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development. Singapore: Springer (2020), doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-5889-0_12.

[53] N. Gupta, D. K. Khan, and S. C. Santra, “Determination of public health hazard potential of wastewater reuse in crop production,” World Rev. Sci. Technol. Sustain. Dev., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 328–340 (2010).

[54] A. Upadhyaya and S. Mohapatra, “Water scarcity and health hazards in changing climate scenario: A case study of a semi-arid area in Rajasthan,” Asian Resonance, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 151–157 (2017).

[55] L. S. Pereira, I. Cordery, and I. Iacovides, Coping with Water Scarcity: Addressing the Challenges. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer (2009).

[56] M. Motoshita, N. Itsubo, and A. Inaba, “Development of impact factors on damage to health by infectious diseases caused by domestic water scarcity,” Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., vol. 16, pp. 65–73 (2011).

[57] M. Basu and R. Shaw, “Water scarcity and migration: An Indian perspective,” in Water Insecurity: A Social Dilemma. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing (2014), pp. 187–211.

[58] R. B. Bhagat, “Climate change, vulnerability and migration in India: Overlapping hotspots,” in Climate Change, Vulnerability and Migration. New Delhi, India: Routledge India pp. 18–42 (2017).

[59] D. Mahadevia, “The poverty and vulnerability of migrant workers in India,” Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology, Ahmedabad, India (2002).

[60] R. Srivastava, “Vulnerable internal migrants in India and portability of social security and entitlements,” Institute for Human Development, New Delhi, India (2020).

[61] S. D. Santha, S. Jaswal, D. Sasidevan, A. Khan, K. Datta, and A. Kuruvilla, “Climate variability, livelihoods and social inequities: The vulnerability of migrant workers in Indian cities,” Int. Area Stud. Rev., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 76–89 (2016).

[62] B. V. Bhatt and N. D. Sharma, “Water scarcity in India: Irrigation practices,” in Handbook of Irrigation Hydrology and Management. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press (2023), pp. 291–313.

[63] R. Kumar, J. S. Mishra, K. K. Rao, S. Mondal, K. K. Hazra, J. S. Choudhary, H. Hans, and B. P. Bhatt, “Crop rotation and tillage management options for sustainable intensification of rice-fallow agro-ecosystem in eastern India,” Sci. Rep., vol. 10, Art. no. 11146 (2020).

[64] R. Chakraborti, K. F. Davis, R. DeFries, N. D. Rao, J. Joseph, and S. Ghosh, “Crop switching for water sustainability in India’s food bowl yields co-benefits for food security and farmers’ profits,” Nature Water, vol. 1, pp. 864–878 (2023), doi: 10.1038/s44221-023-00135-z.

[65] S. Bhan and U. K. Behera, “Conservation agriculture in India—Problems, prospects and policy issues,” Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res., vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 1–12 (2014), doi: 10.1016/S2095-6339(15)30053-8.

[66] M. A. Busari, S. S. Kukal, A. Kaur, R. Bhatt, and A. A. Dulazi, “Conservation tillage impacts on soil, crop and the environment,” Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 119–129 (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.05.002.

[67] M. A. Kader, M. Senge, M. A. Mojid, and K. Ito, “Recent advances in mulching materials and methods for modifying soil environment,” Soil Tillage Res., vol. 168, pp. 155–166 (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.still.2017.01.001.

[68] K. Singh and S. M. Mahanta, “Sustainable urban water management strategies,” in Water Governance and Management in India: Issues and Perspectives, Volume 2. Singapore: Springer, pp. 23–43 (2021), doi: 10.1007/978-981-16-1472-9_2.

[69] A. Jana, “Rethinking water policy in India with the scope of metering towards sustainable water future,” Clean Technol. Environ. Policy, vol. 23, pp. 2471–2495 (2021).

[70] K. Vairavamoorthy, S. D. Gorantiwar, and S. Mohan, “Intermittent water supply under water scarcity situations,” Water Int., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 121–132 (2007), doi: 10.1080/02508060708691969.

[71] D. Sheth, “Water efficient technologies for green buildings,” Int. J. Eng. Innov. Sci. Res., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 5–10 (2017).

[72] A. K. Sharma, A. Nigrawal, and P. Baredar, “Sustainable development by constructing green buildings in India: A review,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 46, pp. 5329–5332 (2021).

[73] S. Kumar, “Impact of climate change on stormwater drainage in urban areas,” Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess., pp. 1–20 (2022).

[74] D. Zhang, “Water scarcity and sustainability in an emerging economy: A management perspective for future,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 1, Art. no. 144 (2021), doi: 10.3390/su13010144.

[75] N. Devineni, S. Perveen, and U. Lall, “Solving groundwater depletion in India while achieving food security,” Nat. Commun., vol. 13, Art. no. 3374 (2022).

[76] C. He, Z. Liu, and J. Wu, “Future global urban water scarcity and potential solutions,” Nat. Commun., vol. 12, Art. no. 4667 (2021), doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-25026-3.

[77] A. Loch and D. Adamson, “Drought and the rebound effect: A Murray-Darling Basin example,” Nat. Hazards, vol. 79, pp. 1429–1449 (2015).

[78] D. S. Varma, K. Nandanan, V. Raja P. C., S. B., M. López Pérez, S. K. A., and M. V. Ramesh, “Participatory design approach to address water crisis in the village of Karkatta, Jharkhand, India,” Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change, vol. 172, Art. no. 121002 (2021), doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121002.

[79] E. Krogulec, “Hydrogeological study of groundwater-dependent ecosystems—An overview of selected methods,” Ecohydrol. Hydrobiol., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 185–193 (2016).

[80] H. Muzioreva, T. Gumbo, N. Kavishe, T. Moyo, and I. Musonda, “Decentralized wastewater system practices in developing countries: A systematic review,” Util. Policy, vol. 79, Art. no. 101442 (2022), doi: 10.1016/j.jup.2022.101442.

[81] G. K. Pala, A. P. Pathivada, S. J. H. Velugoti, C. Yerramsetti, and S. Veeranki, “Rainwater harvesting—A review on conservation, creation & cost-effectiveness,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 45, pp. 6567–6571 (2021), doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.593.

[82] B. A. V. R. Kumar, C. Tadi, A. Kodimela, P. Ramu, and C. H. Ajay, “Rain water harvesting potential using geographical information system,” in AIP Conf. Proc., p. 040020 (2025), doi: 10.1063/5.0279221.

[83] S. Lokhande and P. P. Kalbar, “Economic and environmental benefits of natural treatment systems for sewage treatment: A life cycle perspective,” Water Res., vol. 257, Art. no. 121710 (2024).

[84] S. M. Alawad, A. E. Khalifa, D. Lawal, A. H. Al Hariri, M. Antar, and W. Falath, “Analysis and evaluation of circulated water gap membrane distillation process for water desalination,” Desalination Water Treat., vol. 312, pp. 14–27 (2023).

[85] O. E. Olufisayo and O. Olanrewaju, “A review of renewable energy powered seawater desalination treatment process for zero waste,” Water, vol. 16, no. 19, Art. no. 2804 (2024).

[86] N. Xie, M. Akin, and X. Shi, “Permeable concrete pavements: A review of environmental benefits and durability,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 210, pp. 1605–1621 (2019), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.134.

[87] N. J. Okoli, “A sustainable information system framework for the adoption of a smart water meter system,” (2024).

[88] R. K. Sivanappan, “Prospects of micro-irrigation in India,” Irrig. Drainage Syst., vol. 8, pp. 49–58 (1994).

[89] P. S. Shirgure and A. K. Srivastava, “Effect of automatic micro-irrigation scheduling on productivity and quality of Nagpur mandarin,” Indian J. Hortic., vol. 71, no. 1, pp. 112–116 (2014).

[90] M. Shukla, A. C. Sadhu, A. R. Chinchmalatpure, I. Prasad, S. Kumar, and D. Camus, “Fertigation—Modern technique of fertilizer application,” Indian Farmer, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 1062–1071 (2018).

[91] Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Government of India, National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, 2017. Faridabad, India: CGWB (2019).

[92] Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Government of India, National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, 2022. Faridabad, India: CGWB (2022).

[93] M. Boujelben, Z. Benmessaoud, M. Abid, and M. Elleuchi, “An efficient system for water leak detection and localization based on IoT and lightweight deep learning,” Internet Things, vol. 24, Art. no. 100995 (2023).

[94] M. Dinesh Kumar, R. M. Saleth, S. A. Prathapar, V. R. Reddy, A. Narayanamoorthy, and N. Bassi, “Mihir Shah Committee Report (2016) on water reforms in India: A critique,” Institute for Resource Analysis and Policy, Hyderabad, India (2016).

[95] J. N. Vyas and S. Nath, “The role of government and the public in water resource management in India,” in Pollutants and Water Management: Resources, Strategies and Scarcity. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, pp. 399–415 (2021), doi: 10.1002/9781119693635.ch16.

[96] Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India